+- Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great (1542-1605)

Akbar, the third Mughal emperor, the true founder of the Mughal Empire reigned from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal and from the Himalayas to the Godavari River in south. He was the most powerful face on Earth in the 16th century.

Just at the age of 13 an illiterate prince was crowned emperor who proved himself a skilled conqueror and administrator. Not only did he expand his empire’s peripheries but also explored the various fields of art and patronized them. It were those ‘nine jewels’ (nau-ratna) coveting various fields, which pillared his vast empire for almost half a century. His valor definitely played the lead in expanding boundaries but equally true is the fact that no sword can suppress revolt this long however mighty if it had not penetrate the mind and soul of lay-man.

Akbar ruled, when conspiracies were common in every walk of life.

The span for which an emperor ruled depended on the failure or success of various conspiracies at the time. Above all the reforms he made, like removal of Jizya tax; marital alliance with Hindus; acknowledging good art; reflected his desire to propogate harmony and peace. The solid proof was Din-i-illahi, which was the compilation of the best things from every religion.

The Reign of Akbar, 1556-1605

Akbar was only 14 years of age in 1556 when he succeeded his father Humayun. That year, a formidable anti-Mughal coalition, consisting mainly of Afghanis, tried to recapture northern India but lost its battle against the Mughals at Panipat. Mughal control over northern India was finally established.

Akbar pursued a policy of vigorous expansion until his empire reached the greater part of the sub-continent north of the Godavari, writes Hambly. Akbar proved himself as sophisticated a commander and leader as any of his ancestors. Akbar's far-sighted policies also included the employment of talented Hindus in senior administrative positions in a regime that previously had been exclusively Muslim.

In 1566, an attempt was made on Akbar's life. An assassin, posted on the roof of Khair al-Manzel, a madrasah built by Maham Anka near the Purana Qala, shot an arrow at the emperor as he rode back into Delhi. The arrow wounded Akbar's shoulder. This incident changed Akbar's method of rule, notes Hambly. Akbar now took into his own hands the supervision of the entire administration of the empire.

Akbar was an ambitious and noble commander who built the largest army ever in the history of the Mughal empire. By the end of the 16th century, a Mughal army in the field resembled a city on the move. Not all of Akbar's military expeditions were of an expansionist nature. Akbar also was compelled to quell formidable uprisings among his own subjects, especially the Uzbeks and the Afghans. The Afghans in India were the most turbulent and dangerous of the emperor's subjects, especially those who had been born in the time of the Lodi Sultans and still remembered the great era of Shir Shah Sur and his son Islam Shah.

Akbar annexed Malwa, Gondwana, and Bengal to the empire, and the Mughal troops made their first appearance in the Deccan. Khandesh, Berar and Ahmadnagar became Mughal subahs (provinces). According to Hambly, the annexation of the formerly independent Sultanate of Gujarat provided the empire with: enormous additional revenue from the area's rich commercial centers; access to the Gulf of Cambay, and hence, to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina in the Arabian Peninsula; and opportunities for trade with the Portuguese and the Ottoman Empire.

Akbar was well aware of the structure and stratum of the society of his empire. His bold and imaginative approach to the problems of his heterogeneous empire may have reduced some of the long-standing, although generally passive, Hindu antagonism toward an administration which was entirely Muslim in spirit.

Akbar appointed the great Hindu Rajput chiefs to an active partnership in his government. Eventually, it became accepted practice for high-profile Hindus, like Amber or Jodhpur, to be governors of a major province or commander-in-chief of an army composed largely of Muslims. The Hindus were able to practice their own religion without disturbance.

Akbar's policy toward Hindus must be seen in its proper perspective. There was consistent contact between Hindus and Muslims in many areas of social life. Not only Muslim sovereigns but the entire Muslim ruling class recruited Hindus into their services, often in positions of great responsibility such as the case with Todar Mal and his staff. Hindus also served as craftsmen, artisans, entertainers, concubines, soldiers and servants. The two communities acknowledged and respected each other's rights in all aspects of social and religious life, notes Hambly.

Akbar, who was born at Amarkot in Sind in 1542, had spent most of his childhood as an Afghanistan. From his Persian mother, he inherited his princely manners, his love of literature and the arts, and a characteristically Persian delight in philosophical discussion. From his Turkish father, he inherited his fierce energy, his love of war and his ability to command. During the early part of his life, Akbar took the greatest joy in hunting, in elephant fights, and in intellectual games. Akbar reveled in all the varied pleasures of the chase, from facing charging tigers and leopards to pursuing the wild ass in the Rajasthan desert.

Akbar became unhappy with the increasing criticism of his relaxed attitude regarding non-Muslims in his government. Akbar's attitude was undoubtedly related to his vision of an empire with a diversity of faiths and cultures. Akbar's ire also reflected a hardening of his iron will and his fiercely individualistic personality, writes Hambly. The establishment of a new religion, Din-i llahi (Divine Faith), was a result of Akbar's consistent confrontations with his orthodox opponents.

The court of Akbar fostered a lively literary culture and encouraged translations of all kinds. Massive numbers of classics were rendered into Sanskrit and Hindi. Also, religious literature was translated into Persian from other languages like Chaghatai Turkish, Sanskrit and Arabic. Akbar's school of translation made a valuable contribution to the Indianization of the Mughal ruling class.

Hambly writes that Akbar's vigorous personal influence over the life of his court was paralleled in his patronage of painting. During Akbar's reign, early Safavid style -- which had been introduced into India by Humayun -- began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a genuinely original Mughal style evolved. The new style brought a change of emphasis in subject matter. Traditional Persian painting had been concerned mainly with the illustration of literary classics such as the shahnameh, Nizami's Khamseh and Jami's Yusuf va Zulaykha. Mughal painters -- many of whom were Hindus -- shifted their focus from illustrating the great classics of Persian literature to new subjects such as the life of Akbar and his court, as well as the representation of nature, landscape and portraiture.

The most distinctive work in Akbar's ateliers was the series of illustrations commissioned for Abdul Fazl's Akbarnameh. This series demonstrates the unique and superb qualities of the nascent Mughal School and set it far apart from its Safavid or Timurid precursors. In this series, crowded and bustling scenes of men and animals are full of vigor and movement; the use of color is uninhibited; and detail is finely observed. The languid is rejected.

Unlike Babur or Humayun, Akbar had both the time and the resources to build on a monumental scale. Most of the monuments were constructed in or near Agra rather than in Delhi, Hambly writes. Akbar did not have great affection for Delhi, although most important Mughal structures had been built there. For Akbar, Delhi must have been a city of unhappy memories -- the scene of his father's death and his own narrow escape from an assassination attempt. Moreover, the principal landmarks in Delhi -- the Purana Qala, the city walls and gateways -- commemorated the greatness of Shir Shah whom Akbar considered as the usurper of his father's kingdom. Since Delhi was the capital of both the Lodi Sultanate and the Shir Shah Sur dynasty, the city was always restless and hostile to the Mughals. In light of these circumstances, Akbar must have found Agra a more attractive residence.

Akbar initially ruled from Delhi, but two years later he moved to Agra. The city was renamed Akbarabad in his honor and became the greatest city in the empire. The main part of the city lay on the west bank of the Yamuna and was provided with a drainage system to control the flow of rainwater. A new city wall was erected, and the old mud-brick fortress used by the Lodis was built again in 1565 of sandstone. The building's red color, write Blair and Bloom, gives rise to its modern name, the Red Fort. Blair and Bloom note that the fort follows the irregular, semicircular plan of its predecessor. On the city side, it is enclosed by a moat and a double wall that is broken by the Delhi Gate on the west and the Amar Singh Gate on the south. The two massive gates are distinguished by rows of arched niches and stunning veneer in red and white marble with highlights in blue glazed tile.

According to the historian Abdul Fazl, construction of the fort was supervised by Muhammad Qasim Khan, who is credited with various feats of civilc engineering and who bore the dual titles, Master of the Land and Sea (mir-I barr wa bahr)and Master of Pyrotechnics (mir-Iatish).

Two palaces are located to the southeast of the Red Fort, the Akbar Mahal and the Jahangiri Mahal. Like the gates, the outer facade of the Jahangiri Mahal is articulated with an orderly series of blind niches and panels filled with geometric motifs. In contrast to the calm austerity of the exterior, many of the interior surfaces are extravagantly decorated in carved stone, painted and carved stucco, and tile. The geometric patterns on screens and flat panels in the Jahangiri Mahal derive from Timurid designs.

A similar synthesis of diverse architectural traditions could be seen on a larger scale at Fatehpur Sikri founded in 1571. The city was known as Fathabad (City of Victory), a Persian name which was soon supplanted in popular usage by the Indianized form, Fatehpur Sikri. Most of the major constructions at Fatehpur Sikri date to the 14 years when the city served as Akbar's principal residence.

The city contained imperial gardens, rest-houses, residences for the nobility, and an experimental school dedicated to the study of language acquisition in childhood. Within the city, the buildings are set in two distinct ways. The service buildings -- such as the caravanseri, the mint or factory, and a long bazaar (chahar-suq) -- are set perpendicular to the southwest/northeast axis of the ridge. The imperial section of the city, which includes one of the largest congregational mosques in India, as well as a residential and administrative area known as the palace (dawlatkhana), is set at an angle to the ridge and aligns with the qibla, write Blair and Bloom.

Akbar's tomb in Sikandara is set in a vast garden (about 760 square yards) enclosed by a high wall and divided by water channels. The red sandstone gateway on the south side, write Blair and Bloom, is crowned by four white marble minarets. It is boldly decorated in white, gray and black marble that is set in panels with geometric designs and large-scale floral arabesques which resemble the patterns on textiles. The numerous Persian verses in the frame around the arch, write Blair and Bloom, compare the tomb and its garden to paradise. They were designed by Abd al-Haqq Shirazi who was awarded the title Amanat Khan (Trustworthy Noble) and who was responsible for many of the inscriptions on the Taj Mahal.

The tomb is a pyramidal arrangement of three tiers of red sandstone pavilions with domed pavilions (chatris) at the corners. On top is an open court containing the emperor's marble cenotaph surrounded by pierced marble screens, write Blair and Bloom. The white color of the marble, continue Blair and Bloom, contrasts sharply with the red sandstone used elsewhere. The play of light and shadow over the increasingly delicate superstructure contrasts with the powerful massing of the basement.

With its receding stories of pillared galleries, write Blair and Bloom, Akbar's tomb belongs to the indigenous tradition of trabeate construction used for palaces, while the podium, with its vaulted bays, vestibule decorated with painted plaster, and high portals whose strong intarsia reproduced the effect of tile, maintains the Timurid tradition of vaulted masonry.

Because of his ideal of cultural synthesis and religious diversity, Akbar reserved a unique place for himself in Indian history.

+- THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

In India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever. The Mughal Empire ruled hundreds of millions of people. India became united under one rule, and had very prosperous cultural and political years during the Mughal rule. There were many Muslim and Hindu kingdoms split all throughout India until the founders of the Mughal Empire came. There were some men such as Babar, grandson to the Great Asian conqueror Tamerlane and the conqueror Genghis Khan from the northern region of Ganges, river valley, who decided to take over Khyber, and eventually, all of India.

Babar (1526-1530): the great grandson of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, was the first Mughal emperor in India. He confronted and defeated Lodhi in 1526 at the first battle of Panipat, and so came to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun.

Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556): the eldest son of Babar, succeeded his father and became the second emperor of the Mughal Empire. He ruled India for nearly a decade but was ousted by Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan ruler. Humayun wandered for about 15 years after his defeat. Meanwhile, Sher Shah Suri died and Humayun was able to defeat his successor, Sikandar Suri and regain his crown of the Hindustan. However, soon after, he died in 1556 at a young age of 48 years.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545): was an Afghan leader who took over the Mughal Empire after defeating Humayun in 1540. Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign proved to be a landmark in the Sub-continent. As a king, he has several achievements in his credit. He established an efficient public administration. He set up a revenue collection system based on the measurement of land. Justice was provided to the common man. Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign; planting of trees, wells and building of Sarai (inns) for travellers was done. Roads were laid; it was under his rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to Kabul was built. The currency was also changed to finely minted silver coins called Dam. However, Sher Shah did not survive long after his accession on the throne and died in 1545 after a short reign of five years.

Akbar (1556-1605): Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died. Akbar's reign holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the foundations of the Mughal Empire. After a series of conquests, he managed to subdue most of India. Areas not under the empire were designated as tributaries. He also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them. Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great administrator as well. He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the foundation of an administrative system that operated even in British India. Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal policies towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue system and his famous Mansabdari system. Akbar's Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil administration.

Akbar died in 1605, nearly 50 years after his ascension to the throne, and was buried outside of Agra at Sikandra. His son Jehangir then assumed the throne.

Jehangir: Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning "Conqueror of the World". He married Mehr-un-Nisa whom he gave the title of Nur Jahan (light of the world). He loved her with blind passion and handed over the complete reins of administration to her. He expanded the empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated the Mughal rule in Bengal. Jehangir lacked the political enterprise of his father Akbar. But he was an honest man and a tolerant ruler. He strived to reform society and was tolerant towards Hindus, Christians and Jews. However, relations with Sikhs were strained, and the fifth of the ten Sikh gurus, Arjun Dev, was executed at Jehangir's orders for giving aid and comfort to Khusrau, Jehangir's rebellious son. Art, literature, and architecture prospered under Jehangir's rule, and the Mughal gardens in Srinagar remain an enduring testimony to his artistic taste. He died in 1627.

Shah Jahan: Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628. Khurram took the name of Shah Jahan, i.e. the Emperor of the World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north and conquered most of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during Shah Jahan's rule. This was due to almost 100 years of unparalleled prosperity and peace. As a result, during this reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts and culture of the Mughal Empire. Shah Jahan has been called the "architect king". The Red Fort and the Jama Masjid, both in Delhi, stand out as towering achievements of both civil engineering and art. Yet above all else, Shah Jahan is remembered today for the Taj Mahal, the massive white marble mausoleum constructed for his wife Mumtaz Mahal along the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra.

Aurangzeb: Aurangzeb ascended the throne in 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707. Thus Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years, matching Akbar's reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept his five sons away from the royal court with the result that none of them was trained in the art of government. This proved to be very damaging for the Mughals later on. During his 50 years of rule, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his ambition of bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule. It was under him that the Mughal Empire reached its peak in matter of area. He worked hard for years but his health broke down in the end. He left behind no personal wealth when he died in 1707, at the age of 90 years. With his death, the forces of disintegration set in and the mighty Mughal empire started collapsing.

+- THE MAURYAN RULERS

RISE OF MAURYAN DYNASTY

The Mauryan Empire was the first major empire in the history of India and ruled the land from 322 BC to 185 BC. Important rulers of this dynasty were Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and King Ashoka. This empire reached its peak under King Ashoka. However, this mighty empire crumbled rapidly, under its own weight, soon after the death of Ashoka.

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322-298 BC)

Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. The origin of Chandragupta is shrouded in mystery. It is not clear if he belonged to the upper caste or the lower caste. At that time, Magadh was ruled by the Nanda dynasty whose rule was unpopular. Chandragupta founded the Mauryan Empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty with the help of Chanakya (also Kautilya) who was an important minister in the court of the Nanda rulers. Chanakya was ill treated by the Nanda king and he vowed to destroy their kingdom. He met the young Chandragupta in the Vindhya forest. As Chanakya was well versed in politics and the affairs of the state, he groomed Chandragupta and helped him raise and organize an army. Thus, with the help of Chanakya, Chandragupta overthrew the last Nanda ruler and became the king. Chanakya became the chief minister in the court of Chandragupta.

The invasion of the northwestern part of India by Alexander in 326 BC and the subsequent establishment of the rule of Seleucus Nikator (one of Alexander's general) was a thorn in the eyes of Chandragupta. Chandragupta firstly stabilized his power in Magadh and then began his campaign against Seleucus.

After a prolonged struggle, Chandragupta was able to defeat Seleucus in 305 BC and annexed the entire Punjab and areas across the Indus River. According to the peace treaty with Seleucus, Chandragupta also got Kabul, Gandhara, and parts of Persia and married his daughter. In this way, Chandragupta became the undisputed ruler of Northern India. His fame was so widespread that rulers from far off kingdoms send their envoys to his court. Chandragupta also conquered parts of Central India and united the whole of northern India under Mauryan rule. After ruling for about 25 years, he became a Jain ascetic and left his throne to his son Bindusara (296 BC-273 BC).

ADMINISTRATION UNDER CHANDRAGUPTA

Most of our knowledge about the Mauryan period in general and the rule of Chandragupta in particular is obtained from two important literary sources: the Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, and Indica, written by the ancient Greek writer Megasthenes (who was an ambassador of Seleucus Nikator and had come to the court of Chandragupta).

The Arthashastra talks about the principles of governance and lays down rules of administration. It also discusses in detail the role of the king, his duties, rate of taxation, use of espionage, and laws for governing the society. The Indica of Megasthenes, on the other hand, gives a vivid description of the Mauryan society under the rule of Chandragupta. Megasthenes described the glory of the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra. He also talked of the lifestyle in the cities and villages and the prosperity of the Mauryan cities.

Chandragupta had united the whole of northern India under one rule and the Mauryan Empire was the first large, powerful, centralized state in India. The Arthashastra laid the foundation of the centralized administration of Mauryan governance. The empire was divided into administrative districts or zones, each of which had a hierarchy of officials. The top most officers from these districts or zones directly reported to the Mauryan ruler. These officials were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining the army, completing irrigational projects, and maintaining law and order.

During Chandragupta reign, the state regulated trade, levied taxes, and standardized weights and measures. Trade and commerce also flourished during this time. The state was responsible for providing irrigational facilities, succor, sanitation, and famine relief to its masses. Megasthenes, in his writings, has praised the efficient Mauryan administration.

BINDUSARA (296 BC-273 BC)

Chandragupta, after ruling for about 25 years, became a Jain ascetic and left his throne to his son Bindusara, who inherited a vast empire that spanned parts of modern-day Afghanistan in the northwest, to parts of Bengal in the east. It also spread through large parts of central India.

Bindusara extended the Mauryan Empire southwards in the Indian peninsula as far as Mysore. He defeated and annexed 16 small kingdoms, thus extending his empire from sea to sea. The only regions that were left out on the Indian subcontinent were that of Kalinga (Orissa) and the kingdoms to the extreme south of the Indian peninsula. As these southern kingdoms were friendly, Bindusara did not annex them, but the Kingdom of Kalinga was a problem for the Mauryan Empire.

The administration under Bindusara functioned smoothly. During his reign, Mauryan Empire had good relation with Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians.

ASHOKA (273 BC-232 BC)

Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka, the most famous of the Mauryan Kings. The Mauryan Empire reached its peak under the rule of Ashoka. He undertook military campaign against Kalinga and, after defeating it in a bloody war, annexed it. However, the sight of the large-scale carnage moved Ashoka, and he embraced Buddhism. The war of Kalinga was the turning point in the life of Ashoka to the extent that he shunned all forms of violence and became a strict vegetarian. For the rest of his life, Ashoka preached the principles of Buddhism not only in his vast empire, but also sent missions abroad. Ashoka built a number of rock edicts and pillars to spread the gospel of Buddhism.

ADMINISTRATION UNDER ASHOKA

Before the Kalinga war, the Mauryan administration under Ashoka was not different from that of his predecessors. Ashoka, like previous Mauryan kings, was at the head of the centralized administrative system. He was helped by a council of ministers that was in charge of different ministries like taxation, army, agriculture, justice, etc. The empire was divided into administrative zones, each one having its hierarchy of officials. The top most officers at the zonal level had to keep in touch with the king. These officers took care of all aspects of administration (social welfare, economy, law and order, military) in the different zones. The official ladder went down to the village level.

The war with Kalinga transformed Ashoka both on a personal as well as public level. He made a number of changes in the administration. Ashoka introduced a new cadre of officials, by the name of Dhamma Mahamatta, who were sent across the empire to spread the message of Ashoka's Dhamma (dharma).

ASHOKA'S DHAMMA

As Ashoka became a devout Buddhist, he began to spread the teachings of Buddha by issuing edicts, which not only propagated religion but also his ideas on society and governance.

These edicts were sent to different parts of the empire, where they were engraved on rocks or pillars, for the common people to see and read them.These edicts were written in different scripts. Most of them were in Brahmi, which was common in most parts of the empire. The language was generally Prakrit (ancient language), as it was spoken by the common people, whereas Sanskrit was spoken by educated upper caste people. Some inscriptions were also written in Greek and Aramaic (an Indo-Persian language). As Ashoka wanted his message to reach all his subjects, he used the language they understood.

Ashoka believed in high ideals, which, according to him, could lead people to be virtuous, and peace loving. This he called Dhamma (which is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma). His rock edicts and pillar inscriptions propagated the true essence of Dhamma. Ashoka asked the different religious groups (Brahmins, Buddhist and Jain) to live in peace. His lofty ideals also included shunning violence and war, stopping animal sacrifice, respect for elders, respect of slaves by their masters, vegetarianism, etc. Above all, Ashoka wanted peace in his empire.

Ashoka believed that the King should look upon his subjects as a father treats his children. He took care of his subjects in various ways and was responsible for carrying out a lot of welfare activities during his reign like building of roads, planting of trees along these roads, wells, rest houses for travelers, hospitals for the sick, etc. The Dhamma Mahamattas (officers responsible for promoting the policy of Dhamma) looked after these welfare activities across the empire.

Ashoka had a friendly relation with his neighbors and sent and received envoys to/from them. He sent his son Mahendra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism there. He also propagated Buddhism to Chola and Pandya kingdoms, which were at the extreme southern part of the Indian peninsula. He also sent Buddhist missions to Burma and other Southeast Asian countries.

THE END OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

The great Mauryan Empire did not last long after the death of Ashoka and ended in 185 BC. Weak kings on one hand and the unmanageability of a vast empire on the other caused the rapid decline of the Mauryas. A number of small kingdoms emerged from the edifice of the Mauryan Empire.

+- MAURYAN EMPIRE CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA

Chandragupta Maurya was India’s first Emperor and great leader. Starting out from lowly beginnings and with the help of some talented individuals Chandragupta would form India’s first great empire, which would last for 140 years after his death.

Chandragupta Maurya’s origns are shrouded in mystery. Generally there are two accepted stories on the birth and youth of Chandragupta Maurya. One story has Chandragupta born into the Maurya clan of the Kshatriyas (Hindu warrior caste), who fell on such bad times that he was sold by his maternal uncles to a cowherd, who raised him as his son. He was later sold as a boy to a hunter to tend his cattle. It was about this time it is said that Chandragupta met Kautilya, who was a Brahmin (a Hindu priest). Kautilya was interested in the boy and his Khastriya origns for the purpose of getting revenge on the reigning Nanda kings of Magadha (in modern Bihar, India). Kautilya then bought Chandragupta from the hunter and took him to Taxila (modern Pakistan) where he gave the boy a royal education, in preparation for the purpose he had for Chandragupta. The second tradition has Chandragupta Maurya being born out of the affair of a Nanda prince and his maid, whose name was Mura (according to this tradition Chandragupta named his dynasty for his mother). Chandragupta spent his youth in the palace and was raised as a prince, but when a kinsman of his named Dhanananda came to power things changed. In a confusing series of events Chandragupta found himself at the center of a political movement by the Brahmins to kick the Nandas out of Magadha, at the end of which Chandragupta was exiled. In this exile the young man met Kautilya, who like above, was interested in Chandragupta for the purpose of revenge. Kautilya then took Chandragupta in as his adopted son and took him to Taxila to complete his royal training.

In any case it was from Taxila that Chandragupta Maurya would begin his conquest. According to Plutarch it was shortly after completing his training that Chandragupta saw the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great. Intrigued by the foreigners and their army Chandragupta studied them and even met with Alexander himself, telling him that the time was ripe for an advance further south. Modern historians believe that Chandragupta was trying to manipulate Alexander into weakening Magadha enough for him to stage a coup. In any case Alexander was forced to turn back and upon his death in Babylon in 323 B.C. Chandragupta, on the advice of Kautilya raised an army. Before long Chandragupta had a disciplined fighting force organized along Macedonian lines and in 322 B.C. (the first definite date in Chandragupta’s life we have) conquered the Punjab. He turned his army around and marched on Magadha, where Dhanananda was so unpopular that Chandragupta was hailed as a liberator by most of the people. In 321 B.C. Chandragupta finally defeated the Nanda loyalists and was proclaimed king, but this did not satisfy Chandragupta, who named himself Emperor Chandragupta Maurya I and his empire, the Mauryan Empire. In accordance with Kautilya’s advice Chandragupta increased the size of his forces till they numbered 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants, and 600,000 infantry. He then sent this army to conquer the Macedonian held Indus River valley in 317 B.C., which was falling into the grips of civil war. After this Chandragupta, again by Kautilya’s advice, settled down to give his new empire structure. During his training in Taxila Chandragupta had grown to earn a liking for the Achaemenid style of governance and ruling, so he instituted a similar system in his Mauryan Empire. A period of peace and stability then ensued following this, but this peace was shattered when news reached the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra in 305 B.C. that Seleukos (Seleucus) I Nicator of the newly formed Seleucid Empire was marching towards the Indus, intent on recovering Alexander’s Indian possessions. Chandragupta went out to meet Seleukos in battle and utterly defeated him at the Indus. The war continued for the next two years until in 303 B.C. Seleukos and Chandragupta reached an understanding. Seleukos agreed to recognize the Mauryan Empire as a legitimate state and to give up the territories of Gandara and Arachosia (The Kabul valley in modern Afghanistan). Chandragupta in turn agreed to recognize the Seleucid Empire as a legitimate state and gave 500 elephants as a gift. To seal the deal Seleukos gave his daughter Helen to Chandragupta as a wife. After the signing of the treaty Chandragupta resumed his conquests, by the time Kautilya convinced him to stop again the Mauryan Empire extended as far north as the Himalayan Mountains and as far south as the Narmada River. With this Chandragupta stopped his expansion and focused internally.

Chandragupta Maurya had made his empire huge and given it a great system of governance; now that he had all the land he wanted he settled down to focus on these domestic matters. One of the first things he did was continue to refine the Achaemenid system. Chandragupta then reformed the caste system so that instead four castes, there were seven: Philosophers, Peasants, Herdsmen, Traders, Soldiers, Government Officials, and Councilors. The backbone of the Mauryan Empire was its agricultural prosperity. To maximize this Chandragupta made it so that he owned all of the farms, he then rented these farms out for a quarter or a half of what was produced on them. To make sure that people worked on the farms Chandragupta exempted them from military service or any other service to the state. The country’s civil service was such: The empire was divided into districts which were managed by relatives and trusted generals of Chandragupta, in each district were several departments which managed all of the government owned faculties and responsibilities in the district. Chandragupta also saw to it that the government controlled the prices of goods and trade, which he did by standardizing all of the weights, measures, and coinage in the Mauryan Empire. To protect the nation from foreign attack Chandragupta Maurya standardized the armed forces so that the Mauryan army would always stand at the strength of 600,000 men. However despite the great wealth and power of his empire, Chandragupta Maurya never enjoyed it, for he was incredibly paranoid. This paranoia was the reason that Chandragupta created a branch of the government that reported directly to him on everything and everybody in the government, even the slightest suspicion on the part of Chandragupta could make a person disappear. The crowning achievements of this paranoia were, according to Megasthenes (Seleucid ambassador to Chandragupta), the building of a palace that reportedly contained 1,400 beds that he never slept twice in and the formation of, on the advice of Kautilya, a unit of 700 female bodyguards.

Chandragupta Maurya’s last years and death are filled with as much mystery as his birth. In 301 B.C. a Jainist sage named Bhadrabahu said that there would be a twelve year drought. According to Jainist tradition Chandragupta, upon seeing the drought happen converted to Jainism and abdicated the throne to his son Bindusara in that same year. He died in this account by starving himself to death while in prayer with Bhadrabahu in 297 B.C. In another account Chandragupta simply threw Bhadrabahu out of his court and ignored his warning, dieing as in the above in 297 B.C., but in this account because of old age. So died Chandragupta Maurya, the first great unifier of India, at an unknown age.

The impact of Chandragupta Maurya was tremendous. Due to Chandragupta’s strong military tradition and excellent government structure the Mauryan Empire was able to grow to cover the entire Indian subcontinent under the reigns of his son Bindusara and his grandson, the legendary Buddhist Emperor Ashoka. While the Mauryan Empire would not last for very long after the death of its founder (about 140 years) the mark it left behind on India still remains to this day.

+- THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire in 326 b.c.e. in northern India. His son Bindusara and grandson Ashoka (Asoka) continued his conquest that unified the entire subcontinent, with the exception of the southern tip, and part of Afghanistan into India’s first great empire. The political and 262 Mauryan Empire cultural achievements of the Mauryan Empire inspire Indians to the present.

Indian history began to emerge from legend in the sixth century b.c.e. with the formation of large kingdoms. One was Magadha in the Ganges Valley with its capital city at Pataliputra, near modern Patna. The trend toward large state formation was also stimulated by external conquest. The first was in 518 b.c.e., when King Darius I of Persia conquered part of northwestern India, incorporating it into his empire. The Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great, who continued marching eastward until he reached the Indus River valley and defeated King Porus and other local rulers.

Chandragupta Maurya might have been inspired by Alexander’s example. In any case, he defeated his Indian rivals, including Magadha, established his capital at Pataliputra, and then fought Alexander’s successor in Asia, Seleucus Nicator, in 305 b.c.e. The two rulers agreed to a peace treaty that settled their boundary in Afghanistan, exchanged gifts and ambassadors, and perhaps formed a matrimonial alliance. Seleucus’s ambassador to the Mauryan court was Megasthenes, who wrote a book of his observations on India. The original is lost, but excerpts have survived in works of other ancient writers, from which we derive much firsthand information about early Mauryan India.

Chandragupta’s minister, named Kautilya, reputedly wrote a book titled Arthasastra (Treatise on polity), which dealt with the theory and practice of government, the laws, and administration. The Arthasastra described the Mauryan Empire as a centralized bureaucratic state. The ruler was supreme commander, chief administrator, and judge. A council of ministers, civil servants, a network of spies, and a large military, reputedly 600,000 men strong, assisted Chandragupta. Megasthenes described Pataliputra as a grand city, enclosed by a wooden wall 9 miles long by 1.5 miles wide, interspersed with gates and watchtowers, and further protected by a wide moat. The city government consisted of six boards of five men each, in charge of different functions. The ruler lived in a sumptuous palace, his hours of work and play were strictly regulated, and when he appeared in public he either rode on an elephant or was carried in a palanquin.

Chandragupta ruled for 25 years. According to Jain tradition he abdicated in 301 b.c.e., became a Jain monk, and fasted to death. His son and successor Bindusara ruled until c. 272 b.c.e. Little is known of him except that he warred to expand the empire southward and was known as the Slayer of Foes. He also exchanged ambassadors with the Seleucid Empire, once asking King Antiochus I to send him some Greek wine, figs, and a philosopher. Antiochus sent him wine and figs and replied that philosophers were not for sale.

Bindusara’s son Ashoka succeeded around 269–268 b.c.e., perhaps after a succession struggle. Ashoka (r. 269–232 b.c.e.) was India’s greatest ruler. He waged war to expand the empire in the south, incorporating all but the southern tip of the subcontinent. His conquest of a state called Kalinga filled him with remorse for the death and destruction and changed his personal life and state policy. Posterity knows much about Ashoka because he had many of his edicts and pronouncements carved on stone pillars and rock surfaces; 10 inscribed pillars survive. Most of the inscriptions are in the Brahmi script, the oldest surviving post-Indus writing; it is a phonetic alphabetical script that is the antecedent of modern Hindi.

Ashoka converted to Buddhism, became a vegetarian, and dedicated the rest of his reign to spreading Buddhism, although he honored all religions. He also discouraged hunting and encouraged people to go on pilgrimages instead. A son and daughter became Buddhist missionaries, spreading the faith to Ceylon. He also convened the Third Buddhist Council around 240 b.c.e. at Pataliputra to deal with differences within the monastic order and to finish compiling the Buddhist canons. He denounced immoral behavior and appointed morality officers to enforce his rules. He also renounced war, stating his intention to change people through moral persuasion; but importantly, he did not disband the army.

Life under the Mauryans was prosperous. While most people lived on farms, cities grew with increasing commerce within the empire and beyond, with China in the East and Rome in the West. The government even established a bureau that built ships and leased them to merchants. Culture flourished. Buddhist and Jain canons were completed during this period. Other writings include religious commentaries and early versions of the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana.

It appears that Ashoka lost his grip in his later years and died around 232 b.c.e. Several sons disputed his succession, and the empire began to fall apart as local governors, many royal princes, exerted their autonomy. Little is known about his successors except their names. Perhaps the fall of the Mauryan Empire was inevitable due to its size and diversity. In 183 b.c.e. a general killed the last Mauryan ruler and established a dynasty in northern India called the Sunga. Meanwhile, Bactrian Greeks were invading the northwestern frontier. India would be torn apart and fragmented for almost fi ve centuries. Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of India’s first great empire, and his minister Kautilya helped establish the institutions that sustained it. The empire grew in size, wealth, and culture under his son and grandson, reaching its zenith under Emperor Ashoka. Its legacy to modern times is the concept of unity for the subcontinent.

+- MAURYAN EMPIRE THE GREAT ASHOKA

The Life Of Ashoka Mauryan

In 324 BCE, Chandragupta, ruler of the Mauryan Empire set out to conquer the weaker surrounding kingdoms to expand the territory of his people. As an explorer by nature, Chandragupta would travel to other lands to determine weather or not their defenses could put up much of a struggle. His military, while not extraordinary, devastated the primitive neighbors and avoided those that could not be won in a day. With cautious technique and determination the emperor spread his boundaries in every direction. With the aid of a Brahman statesman named Kautilya, who organized the political hierarchy of command, Chandragupta became the first to rule over a unified India.

Chandragupta governed the land as best he knew until the century's end, then entrusted the state to his son Bindusara. Nothing changed under the second generation of the Mauryan Empire. The territory continued to increase, as did the size of the military. Bindusara established a reign much the same as his fathers, controlling a larger kingdom than ever before known. As time went on however, the King became ill and speculation ran wild concerning which of his sons would inherit the throne. Tradition would choose the eldest son but many advisors became doubtful of his capabilities.

Oddly enough, soon after Bindusara addressed the public with his intent to stand down, a silent sibling rivalry commenced. For some strange reason Bindusara's sons became the victims of an assassin. One by one each man fell until only Ashoka stood tall. He was the one of many to evade a murderer. It is the belief of many historians that Ashoka and another of political influence thought it better if Bindusara were elevated of his decision.

Ashoka was anointed the new emperor in 274 BCE. Immediately he began instituting his law of oppression by administering capital punishment for even the slightest infractions. His cruel heart showed mercy upon no one. His people spoke so poorly of the new king's antics, word went straight to the top by way of the spies Ashoka had created to investigate public concern. Desiring to win rather than demand acclaim, Ashoka decided to surpass the efforts of his predecessors by brutally demolishing the kingdoms previously unscaved. The kingdom of Kalinga had with its borders, long kept the Mauryan Empire from accessing much of the Ganges river. This was enough of a reason to initiate an invasion. He led his military to eventual victory but in the process lost as well.

Standing along the front lines, Ashoka witnessed first hand the massacre of hundreds of thousands waged war on complete strangers. He knew so many had lost their lives simply because, he, the king, had ordered them to do so. Women became widows, children now orphans, Ashoka asked himself exactly what had his people won in war.

Great changes in policy fell on India following the war. Ashoka relinquished all intent in expanding his lands by military means. He had nothing to gain in battle and no reason to fear outside invasion. Instead he turned all his attention to the welfare of his subjects, and so began an era of peace and internal progression. By example Ashoka taught and persuaded his people to love and respect all living things. According to Dr. Munshi, "he insisted on the recognition of the sanctity of all human life".

The unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. Wildlife became protected by the king's law against sport hunting and branding. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but the overwhelming majority of Indians chose by their own free will to become vegetarians. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them leave for the outside a day of the year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building universities for study and water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and cast. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies.

Ashoka became an avid Buddhist practitioner, building 84,000 stupas across his empire housing the sacred relics of Gotama. He sent his family on religious pilgrimages to foreign lands and held massive assemblies so holy men from the world over could converse upon philosophies of the day. More than even Buddhism was Ashoka's deep involvement in the dharma. The dharma became the ultimate personal conduct of moral and ethical standard he desired his subjects to live by.

The Dharma

Ashoka saw the dharma as a righteous path showing the utmost respect for life. The dharma would bring harmony to India in the form of compassion. Serving as a guiding light, a voice of conscious that is the dharma can lead one to be a respectful, responsible human being. Edward D'cruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a "religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire". Ashoka's intent was to instigate "a practice of social behavior so broad and benevolent in its scope that no person, no matter what his religion, could reasonably object to it".

The dream was to unify a nation so large that its people of one region share little in common with those of another region. Diversity of religion, ethnicity and many cultural aspects held citizens against each other, creating a social block. The moral order of dharma could be agreed upon as beneficial and progressive by all who could understand its merits, in fact the dharma had long been a primary practice for members of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. Dharma became the link between king and commoner, everyone lived by the same law of moral, religious and civil obligation toward each other

Legacy of Ashoka

The reign of Ashoka Mauryan could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have, if hadn't he left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with the actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harrapa. Rather than Sanskrit, the language used for inscription was the current spoken form called Prakrita. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some actual events ever happened but the etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered.

The pillars, chiseled from stone, could weigh to fifty tons a piece. These would habitually be topped off with the sculpture of a lion or bull and carry the word of the king around its base. The transportation of each rock and pillar was a major ordeal, it may take several hundreds to hoist the artifact into place or onto a vessel capable of travel with such extreme weight. Each edict was sent to the outstretches of the empire so all could read, or be read to, the royal dharma. Most commonly the more elaborate works were sent to places of national importance and spiritual recognition, such as the birth place of Gotama.

Pillar Edict II when translated describes the "middle path", the way to enlightenment through dharma that the Buddha taught in his first sermon. Others such as Pillar Edict VII, quote Ashoka as remarking "I consider the promotion of my people's welfare my highest duty". Professor Tambiah, an anthropologist of the University of Chicago translates Rock Edict XI as reading, "There is no gift that can equal the gift of dharma, establishment of human relations in dharma, the distribution of wealth through dharma, or the kinship in dharma". Many of the etchings are complex and contradicting but those of the day got the message loud and clear. years preaching the dharma in order to unify his people. Just as he will never be forgotten, neither will his efforts to impose his great force of dharma. This is why the people of modern India have taken his image of "the wheel of dharma" from the sacred pillars and forever embedded it in the center of their national flag. It's no wonder in all his achievements, Ashoka, the Buddhist King, has inspired infinite cultures, multiple religions, and "One nation under god, with liberty and justice for all".