+ Indian Mythology

Indian Mythology is not only old (1200 B.C), but also vast. The hymns of the Rig Veda are considered the oldest mythological heritage. At this time man had faith in everything around him and godliness was attached to every wonder he saw or experienced. Thus was formed the triad of the early Vedic Gods - Agni, Vayu and Surya. The Vedic Gods were mere abstractions, intangible and illusive but in the post-Vedic phase or in the Puranas the gods assumed substantial shape and individual character.

The two Itihasa or epics Ramayana and the Mahabharata were compiled in the late Vedic period. The heroes of the Vedic age gradually dislodged the shadowy gods and found their place in the Puranas. The Puranic Gods who had their seeds and roots in the Vedas gave rise to the concept of Trimurti. Thus emerged the transition of Hindu mythology from Vedic Gods (the Cosmic Trinity: Agni, Vayu and Surya) to Puranic Gods (the Hindu Trinity: Brahma - Vishnu - Mahesha).

Om or Aum symbolizes the essence of Hinduism. It means oneness with the Supreme, the merging of the physical being with the spiritual. The most sacred syllable, the first sound of the Almighty - the sound from which emerges each and every other sound, whether of music or of language. In the Upanishads this sacred syllable appears as a mystic sound, regarded by scriptures as the very basis of every other sacred mantra (hymn). It is the sound not only of origination but also of dissolution. The past, present and future are all included in this one sound and all that transcends this configuration of time is also implied in Om.

The Indian pantheon consists of 33 Crore Gods. Although these gods are not individually worshipped expect for some, they have a special place in the Hindu mythology and are often seen in temples or in paintings or pictures beside the main three triads and their various manifestations. Here are some of the significant ones:

HANUMAN - the monkey god - devotee of Rama
INDRA - King of the abode of gods
YAMA - the god of death
GAYATRI - personification of the Vedic hymn
GANGA - personification of the holy river
KAMADEVA - god of love
KUBERA - god of wealth
NARADA - the wandering seer who features in almost all the Puranas
VARUNA - the god of oceans
SOMA - the moon god
VISHWAKARMA - the divine architect of the universe

Other than these lesser gods there are a host of celestial beings. These are often mentioned in the various Vedas and Puranas and are much a part of the Hindu mythology as the lesser gods. Celestial beings:

APSARAS: These are beautiful ladies, who dance in the court of Indra. Indra also uses them to lure the saints and sages who by their severe penance endanger his superiority as the ruler of Swarga (Paradise of Indra). In the Vedas they were personification of vapor and in the Puranas the ballet girls in Swarga. RAMBHA, URVASI and MENAKA are the most celebrated of them.

GANDHARVAS: Gandharvas are the celestial musicians who play in the court of Indra and also when some divine act of the gods had been completed in the interest of humanity. They are said to have a great partiality for women and are said to be exceptionally handsome.

KINNARAS: are mythical beings, with a body of a man and head of a horse. They are singers at the court of Indra. They are also sometimes said to be the minstrels of Kubera's palace at Mount Kailasa, which is also the abode of Shiva.

SIDDHAS: are classes of spirits of great purity and holiness, who dwell apart in the sky or mid-air between earth and heaven.

YAKSHA: They are the guardians of wealth and attendants of Kubera, employed to guard his gardens and treasure. They live in ALKA-PURI (yaksha-puri). The female of Yaksha is known as YAKSHINI.

Animals have a special place in Hindu mythology. One comes across various animals in Hindu mythology some, which have been personified and given a form as the centuries passed. These animals have been symbolic as the vehicles and carrier of various gods or one, which have helped the gods in various times. Some of them appear as independent divine creatures and are worshipped in various ways.

The various animals in Hindu Mythology:

AIRAVATA the elephant - vehicle of Indra
AKUPARA the tortoise - on which Earth or Prithvi rests
ANTELOPE - vehicle of Vayu and Chandra
ARVA, mythical being half horse and half bird - one of the horses of the moon
BUFFALO - vehicle of Yama
CERBURA - the three headed infernal dog of the Krishna legend
CROW - vehicle of Shani
DOG and HORSE - vehicle of Shiva as Bhairava
GARUDA the king of birds - half man and half eagle or vulture, vehicle of Vishnu
JAMBAVANT, the king of bears - ally of Rama
KAMADHENU - the cow of plenty
MAKARA or JALAMPA the mythical sea monster - vehicle of Varuna (god of water)
MOUSE - vehicle of Ganesha
NANDI the bull - vehicle of Shiva and Parvati
PARAVANI the peacock - vehicle of Kartikeya
PARROT - vehicle of Kamadeva
RAM, the he-goat - vehicle of Agni
SARAMA - dog of Indra
SHESHNAG or ANANTA the infinite - the king of Nagas, vehicle of Vishnu or the bed on which Vishnu rests
SWAN - vehicle of Saraswati and Brahma
TARKSHYA - winged horse personifying the sun
TIGER and LION - vehicle of Parvati as Kali and Durga
UCHCHAIH-SRAVAS - the eight headed king of horses produced during the churning of oceans

In Hindu religion and mythology, the nine planets occupy an important role. The planet deities are referred to as the NAVAGRAHA and are supposed to have a significant impact on the lives of individuals. Hindus worship these planets as deities, so that they may bring peace and harmony and avert any mishap.

Of the Navagrahas the first seven Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, lend their names to the days of the week: Sunday to Saturday respectively. The other two Rahu (Ascending node) and Ketu (Descending node) are also fabled as planets, the former as a planet with a head and no body and the latter as a planet with a body and no head. The Navgrahas are propitiated because of their sinister effects (Saturn, Rahu and Ketu) and for their favorable influences (Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, Mars, the sun and the moon). In addition to the nine planets, twenty seven nakshatras (constellations) through which the moon passes and twelve signs of zodiac of the sun, regarded as deities, are consulted at births, marriages and on al occasions of family rejoicing, distress or calamity. Shanti (Peace) propitiation ceremony is held to appease any unfavorable constellations.

+ Monuments of India

 India is a land rich in monumental heritage. The monuments of India not only showcase the breathtaking architectural splendor and intricate work but, also serve as a testimony to India’s affluent past.

List of historical monuments of India
Here is a list of the most popular monuments of India:

• Adilabad – The Fourth Fort of Delhi: Adilab is the fourth fort of Delhi, built by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Much of the fort now lies in ruins but, the basic structure has survived.
  
• Adlaj Vav – An Architectural Marvel: The structure of the Adlaj Vav echoes the Indo-Islamic style of architecture. It is a unique water work, a five storied step-well and is located in a small village of Adlaj, 19 km from Ahmedabad.
  
• Agar Sain Ki Baoli: A step-well, known for its traditional Hindu style of architecture, Agar Sain Ki Baoli is located at the heart of the city of Delhi. The history of its origin is shrouded in mystery and there are a number of plausible assumptions about the age and name of its builder.
  
• Agra Fort: A UNESCO World Heritage site, Agra Fort is a massive building built by Akbar the great. The fort is made of red sandstone and is located on the banks of the Yamuna River.
  
• Akbar’s Tomb: A Mughal architectural masterpiece, Akbar’s Tomb is located in Sikander, which is a small suburb of Agra. The tomb is a bright red-tired structure and is different from previous Mughal buildings.
  
Alai Darwaza: Alai Darwaza is a magnificent gateway and belongs to the period of Delhi Sulatanate (1191-1526). It was built by Ala-ud-din Khilji in 1311 and showcases a new style of architecture.
• Bada Imambada: It is an important tourist attraction in Lucknow. The design pattern of the monument is the main attraction here. It reflects the era in which it was built. The great hall is presumed to be the largest hall in Asia.
  
• Bandnore Fort: It is a seven storied fort located in the colorful state of Rajasthan. The fort reflects the fascinating history of the past and typifies the medieval Indian military style of architecture.
  
• Bijai Mandal: The structure of the Bijai Mandal is a matter of controversy. It is neither a fort nor a tower. It is an oblong building which houses a number of rooms within in. The intriguing structure was built by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, the second ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty.
  
• Cellular Jail: The Cellular Jail is located in Port Blair. The jail symbolizes the hardships and inhuman treatment, which the inmates had to encounter during their struggle to attain freedom from the clutches of the British.
  
• Charminar: A famous mosque and monument in the city of Hyderabad, Charminar stands as a pivotal structure around which the glory and history of Hyderabad prevails. The Charminar was built by Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah, the Sultan of Golconda in 1591.
  
• Chittorgarh Fort: The fort is an exemplification of the Rajput style of architecture and highlights the story of the Rajput rulers who laid down their life fighting.
  
• Fatehpur Sikri: It is a majestic city of the Mughal dynasty and was built by the Mughal Emperor Akbar. The Fatehpur Sikri is an amalgamation of different architectural traditions.
  
• Ferozshah Kotla: The citadel was built by Ferozshah Tughlaq. Ferozshah Kotla was the capital city of Ferozshah Tughlaq.
  
• Fort St. Georgefirst Fort of the Colonial Era: Built in 1640, it is the first fort that was built by the British in India. It is located on the coastal areas of the Bay of Bengal and is illustrative of the military architecture.
  
• Golconda Fort: The fort reflects the grandeur of the military architecture. It was used as a defensive structure during the 17th century.
  
• Hauz-I-Alai: It is a unique water work built by Ala-ud-din. It was built with an aim to surmount the problem of water scarcity in the capital city of Siri.
  
• Hawa Mahal: Located in the pink city of Jaipur, the structure of the Hawa Mahal is a perfect blend of Rajput and Mughal architecture. It is an important landmark of the Jaipur city.
  
• Humayun’s Tomb: Built by Haji Begum in 1569-70, the Humayun’s Tomb enhances the Mughal style of architecture. The tomb is located in the eastern part of Delhi.
  
• Itmad-Ud-Daulah’s Tomb: A highly elaborate edifice the Itmad-Ud-Daulah was built between 1622 and 1628 by Nurjahan. It reflects the Islamic style of architecture.
  
• Jantar Mantar: The Jantar Mantar reflects the existence and spirit of science in ancient India. The intriguing structure was built in 1725 by Sawai Jai Sing II.
  
• Kalinjar Fort: The Kalinjar Fort is the abode of a number of monuments and sculptures, which conform to the Hindu style of architecture. It was built in the 7th century AD by Kedar Burman.
  
• Purana Quila: The structure amply reflects the medieval military style of architecture. It was built in the 16th century by Humayun and Sher Shah Suri.
  
• Quitab Minar: Built by Qutub-ud-din Aibak in 1193, the Qutub Minar is an important tourist spot in Delhi. It is a red sandstone tower, which extends to a height of 72.5 m.
  
• Rohtas Fort: The Rohtas Fort stands as a good example of the military style of architecture. The fortress houses a number of buildings in its precincts.
  
• Sher Mandal: Sher Mandal is an attractive structure built in the 16th century by Sher Shah Suri. It was here that the second Mughal emperor Humayun fell to his death.
  
• Siri Fort: It is a defensive fort built by Ala-ud-din Khilji. It was built with an aim to protect the people of his city from the Mongols invaders.
  
• Taj Mahal: No monuments can surpass the Taj Mahal, in terms of the beauty rendered. Built by Shah Jahan in 1632-53, the Taj Mahal marks the peak of Mughal architecture.
  
• The Gol Gumbaz: The Gol Gumbaz is the resting place of Muhammad Adil Shah, the seventh ruler of the Adil Shahi dynasty. Built in 1656, it stands as one of the most important building of Bijapur (Karnataka).
  
• The Red Fort: The Red Fort stands as a good example of the Mughal military architecture. It was built by Shahjahan in 1638-46. It invariably stands as a symbol of India’s Independence.
  
• Tughlaqabad Fort: It is a massive fort which dates back to the period of the Delhi Sultanate. It was built in the 14th century AD by Ghiyas-ud-din-Tughlaq and symbolizes the Tughlaq power.
  
• Victoria Memorial: Built by Lord Curzon in 106-21, the Victoria Memorial is a wonderful example of the colonial style of architecture. It is located in the heart of the Calcutta city and houses a range of beautiful artifacts.

+ Indian Art and Culture

The Indian Art and Culture unravels the uniqueness and diversity of the country in all spheres. Each region has its own distinctive traits and they inevitably contribute to the profundity of the Indian culture.

Dance forms in India
Here are some of the most popular dance forms of India :

• Chhau: This dance form originated in the region of Seraikella and is performed on the eve of the spring festival every year. The mask is the main focus of this dance. It is a traditional art form and is still performed all over the country.
  
• Bhangra: Bhangra is a popular folk dance of Punjab, North India. It is a dance performed on special occasions like weddings and festivals. The dance symbolizes and reflects the happiness of the Punjabi farmers.
  
• Mohiniattam: Mohiniattam is one of the major classical dance styles of India. It is an elegant dance form that originated from the land of Kerela and today, the dance form has spread to other parts of India as well.
  
• Manipuri: Manipuri is a popular dance of the state of Manipur. The main theme of the Manipuri dance is the love of Radha and Lord Krishna. In the 18th century the Manipuri dance blossomed into a classical dance form.
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• Myriad Emotions: It is a dance form in which myriad emotions are portrayed by the artist dancers. It originated from the Kuchipudi village, in the Krishna district of Andhra and its origin dates back to as far as the 2nd century B.C. Innumerable emotions ranging from pride to anger are expressed.
  
• Odissi Dance: It is one of the oldest classical dances of the country. The dance themes mainly centers on the eternal love stories of Radha and Krishna. The Odissi dance can be distinguished from other dance form by the colorful costumes, ornaments, dance steps and fine display of emotions of love and pangs of separation.
  
• Kathakali: Kathakali is a unique dance form of Kerela and dates back to the 17th century. The themes are mostly religious. The costume of the Kathakali dance is intricate and is one of the distinctive traits of this dance.
  
• Bharat Natyam: Bahrat Natyam is India’s ancient classical dance style. It originated from the land of Tamil Nadu and has come a long way since the time of its invention and days in the temples. This dance form is famous not only in India but also abroad. It is regarded as the most elegant of all the dance form in India.

Indian Music Forms

• Tradition – A story of Strings: The string instruments have reached great heights in recent times. The endless moments of ecstasy and pleasure one can derive by listening to the soothing sound of the string instruments, cannot be actually surpassed by any other form of instruments.
  
• Carnatic Music: The carnatic music of the South Indian exposes the rich history and culture of the past. It is considered to be the richest and oldest music tradition in the world. The south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerela, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are famous for their strong presentation of the Carnatic music.
  
• Hindustani Music: The Hindustani Music has assumed a role of immense significance. It is based primarily on the raga system, which is a melodic scale comprising of notes. Each raga acquires a distinctive character of its own. Hindustani music is catchy, rhythmic and takes us to the depth of the Indian culture.
  

+ Prehistoric India

The prehistoric years in India is speculated to have begun from 200000 B.C to about 3500-2500 B.C. Prehistory refers to the time when life first appeared on earth. It also refers to the period of time when the first civilization took shape. Ever since men set their foot on earth, they began to wander from one corner to another. The primitive men lived on food hunting and food gathering. This was their primary occupation and they shoveled in groups of small families.

The Prehistoric Age can be broadly divided into:

Stone Age: As the name signifies, it was an age when stone was used as a primary tool for utilitarian purpose. The Stone Age has been further classified into the Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age, Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age and Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age.

Paleolithic Age: Men of this age were food gatherers and they live in close association with nature. The Paleolithic Age is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The stone was used as an effective tool and various kinds of hunting weapons were curved out of them. These weapons were used to kill small animals and for tearing their flesh. Man also learnt to produce fire and extensively made use of them for various purpose. The Paleolithic age lasted till 8000 B.C.

Mesolithic Age: Small communities were formed in this age. Human beings were slowly learning to lead a life of subsistence. The stone tools were modernized and farming began to take place at an alarming rate. Men made weapons like hand axes, spears, borers and burins. There were small settlements in some parts and the age witnessed a radical change in the food and clothing habits. Man adopted the art of drawing and painting and the famous Bhimbetka Cave near Bhopal stands as an indication of the artiste in them. The Mesolithic Age lasted from 8000B.C – 4000B.C. It was an age, which saw an upsurge in the development of human technology.

Neolithic Age: The Neolithic Age is the last stage of the Stone Age Era. Weapons were improvised all the more in this age, as men adopted new techniques. The age saw the wide domestication of cattle, horses and other animals. They were used to produce meat and milk products. It was in the Neolithic Age that the great utility of the wheel came to the awareness of the human beings. At a later stage of this age, bronze and copper were used to make weapons and tools were specialized all the more. In short, it was a period of technological and social development.

Bronze Age: Tools and weapons were given a new look. The Bronze period commenced immediately after the Neolithic Age. Although, the exact date of its origin is not known, it is said to have begun around 3300B.C. Men began to adopt the most advanced means of livelihood.

Iron Age: As the name itself connotes, it is an age when iron became the primary material for making tools and weapons.

+ Ancient History of India

 Dates of the Ancient period of Indian History
It is safe to assume the advent of Aryans on Indian soil as the date of the ancient period in India. The prior civilizations of India have been categorized under Prehistoric Indian civilizations. The arrival of the Aryans to India is believed to have taken place sometime around the 2nd millennium BC. This is also the beginning of a period when we receive the earliest forms of literary sources for the study of history.

Phases of Ancient Indian history

]The history of ancient India can be best described if it is detailed in phases.

The Vedic Age
This is the earliest period of ancient Indian history. The name has been derived from the Vedas or the sacred texts of the Aryans who had arrived in India. In the beginning this civilization centered in the north and north western parts of India. The Vedic Age can be ideally divided as the early Vedic age and the later Vedic age.

• Early Vedic Age – the early period of Aryan settlement in the Indian subcontinent as well as the establishment of the civilization can be termed as the early Vedic Age. This period is marked by some important developments.
  
• Rigveda – this ancient text was developed during this age. It is a collection Sanskrit hymns that touch almost every aspect of human life. It forms the basic religious text of Hinduism and the sacred chants are in practice even today.
  
• Political System – it is difficult to assume whether the unique political system that developed during this period was a left over of the Indus valley civilization or entirely devised by the Indo Aryans themselves. However this system was unique in the developments of various political units of administration like that of a Grama (village), Vish and Jana all of which formed the Rashtra.
  
• Administrative System – this was probably the earliest reflection of a republic where the popular opinion of the majority was considered. There were two sections called the Sabha that consisted of elderly people and the Samiti that consisted of younger opinions. It was the joint opinion that was taken in view before implementation by the king.
  
• Caste System – though there was a caste system called Varna it was purely a segregation of the people in the basis of their professional pursuits. There were no discriminations in practice on account of that.
  
• Religious Practices – there were religious ceremonies and all such practices were followed on the lines of the methods laid down in the Vedas. These ceremonies were seen of a communication between man and the Creator.
  
• Later Vedic Age – the Later Vedic Age is defined from a period around 500 BC. This is the period that marks a change in every aspect of life from that of the Early Vedic Age.
  
• Mahajanapadas – in the political arena the earlier units disappeared with the rise of the 16 Mahajanapadas. This rise also reflects the power of kingship that developed in the period with strong domination of the Kshatriyas over political and military affairs of the states.
  
• Caste System – a strict caste system developed over the years with the two top castes of Brahmins and Kshatriyas were considered superior than the others and enjoyed all social privileges. This was the period when severe caste discrimination was in vogue especially against those who were considered to belong to the lower castes.
  
• Religious System – the sanctified religious practices were later replaced by elaborate rituals and expensive ceremonies that were usually out of the reach of ordinary people. The performing of such rituals also made the Brahmins important in society and was considered to be the representatives of God on earth.
  
  Dynasties of Ancient India

There were several dynasties of ancient India that are remembered even today for the number of worthy and efficient kings that each have produced. All of these great men have effectively worked for the welfare of the people as well as the glory of the nation. Some of the important dynasties were as follows

• Sisunaga Dynasty – Bimbisara
• Mauryan Dynasty – Chandragupta Maurya, Asoka the Great
• Satavahana Dynasty – Gautamiputra Satakarni
• Gupta Dynasty – Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta

Important Kings of Ancient India

The different phases of ancient Indian history have seen Kings who are remembered even today for their political and military accomplishments.

• Bimbisara – he was the king of the Magadhan Empire from 543 BC. He was the famous king of Magadha under whose rule the kingdom was not only increased in its political expanses but also flourished in several activities like arts and culture.
  
• Chandragupta Maurya – the founder of the Mauryan Dynasty he can be given credence for bringing the territories of the Indian subcontinent under one rule. He is also considered to be the true Emperor of India who could have consolidated a huge kingdom with good administrative and military capability.
• Asoka the Great – son of Chandragupta Maurya he was one of India’s greatest emperors whose reign extended from 304 BC to 232 BC. He is remembered even today for his political achievements as well as his embrace of Buddhism after the Kalinga War. He was responsible for spreading the religion to several countries of the world.
  
• Gautamiputra Satakarni – he is known as the greatest of the Satavahana kings after his father Satakarni. The Satavahana Empire was integrated into a strong kingdom under his rule when he defeated several detractors to increase the power of the Satavahana Kingdom.
  
• Chandra Gupta I – it was under his rule that the Gupta dynasty saw a rise in its power and glory. He is often described as a Maharajadhiraja which is symbolic of an increase of the power and resources of the kingdom.
  
• Samudra Gupta – he is considered to be the greatest of the Gupta kings. There was a great deal of socio-political and cultural activities that took place during his time. It is understood from the sources that he was a keen patron of music and art besides being a good king to his subjects. The period of his rule between 335 AD and 380 AD is also referred to as the Golden Age in Indian history.